Geographical Influence on the History of Nepal

• Geographical Influence on the History of Nepal
• Nepal is situated in various geographical diversities and features with various altitudes
• different natural climate, temperature, forest, wild animals, agriculture, social characteristics.
• Because of its various differences the impact of  geographical influence  in Nepal is found in the politics, economic, social , religion and cultural history.
Geographical Influence on the History of Nepal
There are mainly three Geographical influences in our history :
Social history and culture 2. Economic 3. Politics
1. Geographical Influence on social history and culture:
i) Impact on social structure:
• influenced on social structure for a long time in the geography of Nepal.
• Due to the open boarder of all sides of Nepal such as various gorges to the north Open boarder to south, east and west.
• People from different places were migrated as hunters, herds, tradesmen and penance started to settle over here.

• set of different casts and ethnic groups with different cultures.
foundation of Nepali society is based on different casts and ethnic groups due to the causes of geographical structure.
Tony Hegen, “Nepal is the platform of several casts of
Asia.”
the garden of Mangol, Kirata, Arya, Negretos, Drubian, etc. due to the influence of geographical cause in the history.
Cont …
ii) Impact on residential system:
great impact in Nepalese residential due to the causes of geographical formation of Nepal.
In ancient time, the southern part Terai was mostly covered with dark forest and there was a risk of kalajar fever, malaria, and wild animals to reside for the people. Most of the migrants were from western part of Nepal to the hill regions rather than south to north. The ethnic groups who entered Nepal from the gorge of north boarder, they started to settle northern Himalayan and hill regions of Nepal.
Only after the 19th century, the dark forest of Terai region was started in deforestation and the malaria was eradicated, then the people of different casts and ethnic groups migrated from the north part of India to reside in Terai region of Nepal.
The great numbers of people are residing in Terai region and valley for the better facilities of trades, industries and agriculture these days.

iii) Geographical impact on livelihood :
• divided in three major regions; Himalayan, Hill and Terai regions.
• Himalayan region occupies the land of 15%,
• Hill region 68%
• Terai region 17%.
• Within the hill region there are some other regions like Siwalik hill, gorge, and middle hill and some valleys like
Kathmandu, Pokhara and Dang. Likewise Terai region is also divided in inner Terai, dun, riverside, plain land etc.
Geographical impact on livelihood …..
• different natural characteristic such as climate, soil, temperature and so on
• the occupancy has been varied in different parts of the country.
• The livelihood of the people have also been impacted as per the regions such as those who live in Himalayan region they wear woolen clothes and warm wears whereas the people who live in Terai regions mostly wear thin cotton clothes
• The food and drinks are also taken as per the regions due to the geographical influences to the different casts and ethnic groups in the history of Nepal.

2. Geographical Influence on Economic History:
i) Influence on agricultural:
• Most of the part of Nepal is formed with Himalayan and hill area which occupies 83% of the total land
• Terai occupies only 17% land in total.
• It is only the fertile land of 17% for cultivation.
• According to historical evidences, the land for agriculture was less in ancient time because most of the part of Terai region was fully occupied with dark forest. The production of crops was limited than the hill region.
Agricultural……………
• At the beginning of 19th century it was started to deforestation and people started to migrate from hill region for settlement and started to cultivate agriculture products like rice, maize and other cash crops.
• Gradually the economic status of the people who live in Terai and valley have been higher than mountain region.
• the density of population in Terai region has been greater than hills due the well-built financial condition in our economic history.
II) Influence on Trade and Commerce:
• The development of trade and commerce were practiced from the ancient time due to the influence of geography of Nepal.
• The trade was continued form east, west, the southern Terai and the gorge of northern boarder from the very beginning.
• The trade and commerce was spread from Nepal to Maghad of India through the way of Vaisali and Shrabasti according to the economics of Kautilya.
• The trade was also spread to Tibet and China at the same time. According to the historical resources of China – “The number of traders were greater than in number of farmers in Nepal in ancient time”.
Trade and Commerce………
• The foreign trade was further spread up to Verma, Malaya, Sumatra and European countries ( Dr. Ramesh Dhungel).
• Trade from Nepal to Tibet and China was carried on from the beginnings through many gorges and basins to cross the boarder from Nepal to Tibet such as
Rashuwa to Kerung, Listi and Kuti to Lhasa,
Chhinasim Taklakhar of western Nepal to Tibet,
Dolakha Lamabagar to Digarcha, Beni to Tibet.
Trade and Commerce………
After the 19th century, the trade was quite more influenced to India due to the road transportation faculties and the international trade port in India. Therefore the trade and commerce now is highly applied with India rather than Tibet and China due to the causes of geographical influences.
3. Geographical Influence on  political  history:
• Land of paradise for refugees:
• Nepal is formed with 83% of land as high Himalaya, hill region, valley, siwalik hill with steep mountain structure,
• a plate form for refugees from south boarder and from north border for a long time.
• Nepalese social structure has been formed from various casts and ethnic groups. Group of people were not migrated here as invader but they were entered as refugees to save their lives from the terror and fears.
• Historical resources and chronicles - Lichchavis, Mallas, Shakyas, Karnatakas, Guptas were entered Nepal as refugees from Indian sub-continent.
Land of paradise for refugees…………..
• Likewise Khasas and Kiratas also migrated to Nepal as refugees from western and north boarder of Nepal. Many sages and hermits from their frustrated life entered Nepal for penance, cave, and religious palaces as shelter.
• Only a Bangal Muslim emperor Samasuddin Tugalak entered Nepal as an invader but they did not stay in Nepal for longtime, returned India after 7 days stay in Kathmandu raiding the wealth of Pashupatinath and palaces of Kathmandu.
• Influence on safety and freedom:
 secure for freedom due to the geographical formation of Nepal.
 high Himalayas and mountains to the northern Nepal and has always represented as strong fort in keeping Nepal safe.
 the dark forest of southern Nepal has done another fort of the
boarder.
Due to the gift of nature like mountains, hill regions, and dark forest Nepal has never been in the hands of foreign enemies.
 The strange geographical structure of Nepal has always secured the national sovereignty and freedom in the history of Nepal.
III) Influence on Foreign Policy and Administration :
• Nepal is situated in between two large countries China and India. Nepal has always played a vital role to protect its freedom and sovereignty from these large countries using its diplomatic foreign policy from the very beginning to date.
• Lichchavi king Amsuverma had made a diplomatic relationship with Srang-chang-Gampo, the king of China and with the Harsabardhan, the king of India.
• Later in Malla period, Nepal had a good and dual relationship with Tibetan Lama and Christians of south following the principle of nonalignment policy which has continued up to the modern foreign policy of Nepal.
• the administrative system in Nepal has also been decentralized due to the influence of various geographical structure of a country from the ancient time.
Influence on Foreign Policy and Administration ……….
• According to the chronological and historical resources, the Lichchavi kings and Malla kings had ruled in practicing as decentralized system appointing the head of feudal (samanta) in different territories of the kingdom to help the central body to collect taxes and take care in the different regions.
• After this practices, the administrators became powerful and started to rule in provinces as King themselves and formed the separate kingdoms.
• This train continued for a long time at the end of Malla period in the history of Nepal,
• Before unification of Nepal, there were 50-55 tiny kingdoms, and later Prithvi Narayan Shah started to unify the small kingdoms into the great Nepal due the recent situation of our sovereignty.

Meaning of History

History began when the human beings appeared on
the earth. In fact, the meaning of history is the collection of past events. The word history has been derived from Greek word ' historia ', that implies what has actually happened or been learned by enquiry. Its etymological meaning is 'search for ‘Truth.”

Herodotus is the first man who wrote a book entitled "Persian War" in 503 B.C., he is known as the Father of History. After him Theusididus contributed by writing a book in 411 BC. Many other scholars have described it in a different than the folklore (legends).

Renaissance of Europe during the 16th and 17th century brought a vast difference in the system of writing history. As a result German scholar Ranke wrote a book in 1824 A.D. based on the scientific analysis and truthful facts. So he is known as the Father of Scientific History.

Besides him Nibhor’s contribution also cannot be ignored. In this way the scientific history was born and introduced all over the world in different way.

Definition of History


The scholars have given many definitions about the ward 'history' so far. A famous historian Dr Sarvapally Radhakrishnan says, "History is whole power of nation". He again adds, "History is memory of nation, memory is the principal factor in the sense of the personal identity and individual process, so history is memory of races."

According to Rapson, "History is a connected account of the course of events or progress of idea".

According to Prof. Ghate, "It is a scientific study and a record of our complete past".

Metland gives his definition as. "What men have done
and said, and above all what they thought is the history."

According to Freud, “Historical records are a law of right and wrong.”
Jones thinks that history is a veritable mine of life experiences and the youth of today studies history.

Henry Johnson gives the view that history is a detailed account of the events that have taken place.

Pt. Nehru says, “History is the story of man’s struggle through the ages against nature and the elements; against wild beasts and the jungle and some of his own kind who have tried to keep him down and to exploit him for their own benefit.

Cromwell and Frayed say – “History is the whole truthful events of human being from past to present.”

Dr. Radhakrishnan says, “History is the memory of a nation or a race.”

The best definition which is scientific to a great extent was given by Rapson. According to him, “History is a connected account of the course of events of progress of ideas.”

In this way, we come to the conclusion that the history is the account of past events, which records our whole past. It is a scientific- record of Truthful events started with the origin of human being, It is the whole framework of human civilization and a systematic record of the experience of mankind.

About Lord Buddha

The birth of Prince Siddharth was a significant episode in the history of mankind.
Born in 563 B.C. /King Suddhodana / Queen Mayadevi /Lumbini between Devadaha and Kapilvastu. Mayadevi was Koliya Princes



According to Buddhists literature the newly born Prince Siddhartha took seven steps and utters some precious words making message to the suffering humanity "This is my final rebirth" as he entered the world.


The royal family belonged to the Gautama Gotra of the Shakya clan of the solar race ( Surya Vanshi).

kingdom Kapilvastu was between the Nepalese foothills and the river Rapti. The Shakyas were priestly warriors, wealthy knights and landowners.

Unfortunately, Mayadevi died in seven days after the birth of Siddhartha and so, he was brought up by his stepmother, Gautami, younger sister of Mayadevi.

When the King Shuddhodhana came to know about the prediction , he naturally became extremely alert and tried to prevent a thing that was bound to happen, and he did not let Siddhartha even move out of the palace. It was the deepest desire of the king that his son would fulfill his father's dream one day by becoming a King.



Lord Buddha: Was born – Friday
Left Palace – Monday (used Eastern gate) Enlightened – Wednesday(Mid-night before 12) Died – Tuesday (Cremation after 8 days )



On the 5th day of the birth of the prince, the naming ceremonies were performed (rituals was practiced in 5 days) and it was predicted that the newly born was destined to be either a universal monarch or a supreme enlightened one, a Buddha.

King was shocked by this prediction and enquired, "What will my son see that will be the occasion of his forsaking the household life ?" The astrologers said, "Four signs" and described them as "a man worn by age, a sick man, a dead body and a hermit".



•The King provided his son with all luxuries, and ensured a comfortable and pleasure-filled childhood with the best education. He took special care to protect him from any negative sight. In his youth at the age of 16, Prince Siddhartha married Koliya Princess Yasodhara. She gave a birth to a son named Rahul. But all these worldly ties were not able to stop him from giving up worldly pleasures.



During one of his few excursions, Siddhartha saw
four things, which opened his eyes towards the harsh realities of life.
Saw an old man suffering from the weakness
of age, a sick man suffering from disease, a beggar suffering from hunger and he saw a dead body.
All these events affected him immensely and
Siddhartha finally came to the conclusion that nothing is permanent in life . The infirmities (weakness) of old age, the pangs of hunger, the pain of sickness and end of life brought sufferings that he had never experienced. All these events in his life forced him to search for truth that eventually changed his life.



At the age of twenty-nine, he left his home in search of the answers to his questions, leaving behind his wife and son, his father and a crown that held the promises of power and glory as "Great Departure".

-Name of Horse : Kanthak & and Sarathi - Chhannak

After leaving his homeland, Siddhartha made his way to the hermitage of renowned sages of that time. But found these teachers' range of knowledge was insufficient to grant him that which was still unknown to him. He followed the path of self- embarrassment and went on testing the truth of it for six years but could not attain his desired goal.



Self-mortification could not lead to his desired aim. He came to death's door and realized the utter uselessness of self-humiliation. He gave up self-torture, extreme fasting and began to take nourishing food. Gradually he regained strength and his original appearance. Then began an intense meditation program until he came to know about the absolute truth.

He followed the “Middle Way ” ( Madhya Marga)

He was given rice-pudding by Sujata a village woman as she thought that he was forest God (bana debata)

Cont...

He meditated under the Bodhi tree in Bodhgaya in Urubela forest. At the end of his meditation, in just one night at the age of 35 , Siddhartha came to know about all his previous lives and the truth about cycle of birth and rebirth and how to end the cycle of infinite sorrow. Siddhartha became the "Buddha" or "awakened one".

After two months Lord Buddha decided to impart knowledge and enlightenment to others. The first sermon of Buddha was held at the deer garden in Sarnath, Banaras . Buddha called his teachings "the Middle Way" because it was midway between asceticism (simplicity) and indulgence (extravagance ).

Cont...

His "Four Noble Truths (arya satya)", which are the foundation of all Buddhist beliefs, are:

1. All human life is suffering.
2. All suffering is caused by human desire 3. An end of human desire is the end of
human sufferings. (there is way to end human suffering)
4. An end to al

Persistence of vision

This article is about the optical illusion. For other uses, see Persistence of vision (disambiguation).

"Persistence of Exposure" as a visual art form, using an array of lights, waved back and forth in space, with the lights controlled by wearable computer^[1]

Persistence of vision refers to the optical illusion whereby multiple discrete images blend into a single image in the human mind and believed to be the explanation for motion perception in cinema and animated films. Like other illusions of visual perception, it is produced by certain characteristics of the visual system.

History

Narrowly defined, the theory of persistence of vision is the belief that human perception of motion (brain centered) is the result of persistence of vision (eye centered). That version of the theory was disproved in 1912 by Wertheimer^[2] but persists in citations in many classic and modern film-theory texts.^[3][4][5] A more plausible theory to explain motion perception (at least on a descriptive level) are two distinct perceptual illusions: phi phenomenon and beta movement.

A visual form of memory known as iconic memory has been described as the cause of this phenomenon.^[6] Although psychologists and physiologists have rejected the relevance of this theory to film viewership, film academics and theorists generally have not. Some scientists nowadays consider the entire theory of iconic memory a myth.^[7]

When contrasting the theory of persistence of vision with that of phi phenomena, an understanding emerges that the eye is not a camera and does not see in frames per second. In other words, vision is not as simple as light registering on a medium, since the brain has to make sense of the visual data the eye provides and construct a coherent picture of reality. Joseph Anderson and Barbara Fisher argue that the phi phenomena privileges a more constructionist approach to the cinema (David Bordwell, Noël Carroll, Kirstin Thompson) whereas the persistence of vision privileges a realist approach (André Bazin, Christian Metz, Jean-Louis Baudry).^[7]

The discovery of persistence of vision is attributed to the Roman poet Lucretius, although he only mentions it in connection with images seen in a dream.^[8] In the modern era, some stroboscopic experiments performed by Peter Mark Roget in 1824 were also cited as the basis for the theory.^[9]

Film systems

Main article: Frame rate

Persistence of vision is still the accepted term for this phenomenon in the realm of cinema history and theory. Early practitioners tried different frame rates, and chose a rate of 16 frames per second (frame/s) as high enough to cause the mind to stop seeing flashing images. Audiences still interpret motion at rates as low as ten frames per second or slower (as in a flipbook), but the flicker caused by the shutter of a film projector is distracting below the 16-frame threshold.

Modern theatrical film runs at 24 frames a second. This is the case for both physical film and digital cinema systems.

It is important to distinguish between the frame rate and the flicker rate, which are not necessarily the same. In physical film systems, it is necessary to pull down the film frame, and this pulling-down needs to be obscured by a shutter to avoid the appearance of blurring; therefore, there needs to be at least one flicker per frame in film. To reduce the appearance of flicker, virtually all modern projector shutters are designed to add additional flicker periods, typically doubling the flicker rate to 48 Hz(single-bladed shutters make two rotations per frame – double-bladed shutters make one rotation per frame), which is less visible. (Some three-bladed projector shutters even triple it to 72 Hz.)

In digital film systems, the scan rate may be decoupled from the image update rate. In some systems, such as the Digital Light Processing (DLP) system, there is no flying spot or raster scan at all, so there is no flicker other than that generated by the temporal aliasing of the film image capture.

The new film system MaxiVision 48 films at 48 frames per second, which, according to film critic Roger Ebert, offers even a strobeless tracking shot past picket fences. The lack of strobe (as opposed to flicker) is due to the higher sampling rate of the camera relative to the speed of movement of the image across the film plane. This ultra-smooth imaging is called high motion.

Computer monitors

Aside from some configurations used until the early 1990s, computer monitors do not use interlacing. They may sometimes be seen to flicker, often in a brightly lit room, and at close viewing distances. The greater flickering in close-up viewing is due to more of the screen being in the viewer's peripheral vision, which has more sensitivity to flickering. Generally, a refresh rate of 85 Hz or above (as found in most modern CRT monitors) is sufficient to minimize flicker in close viewing, and all recent computer monitors are capable of at least that rate.

Flat-panel liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors do not suffer from flicker even if their refresh rate is 60 Hz or lower. This is because an LCD pixel generates a continuous stream of light as long as that part of the image is supposed to be lit (see also ghosting). With each scan, the monitor determines whether a pixel should be light or dark and changes the state of the pixel accordingly. In a CRT, by comparison, each pixel generates a temporary burst of light, then darkening, in each periodic scan. The monitor activates a phosphor on the screen during each scan if the pixel is supposed to be light, but the phosphor fades before the next scan.^[10]

Cartoon animation

See also: Key frame

This animated cartoon of a galloping horse is displayed at 12 drawings per second, and the fast motion is on the edge of being objectionably jerky.

In drawn animation, moving characters are often shot "on twos", that is to say, one drawing is shown for every two frames of film (which usually runs at 24 frames per second), meaning there are only 12 drawings per second. Even though the image update rate is low, the fluidity is satisfactory for most subjects. However, when a character is required to perform a quick movement, it is usually necessary to revert to animating "on ones", as "twos" are too slow to convey the motion adequately. A blend of the two techniques keeps the eye fooled without unnecessary production cost.

Animation for most "Saturday morning cartoons" is produced as cheaply as possible, and is most often shot on "threes", or even "fours", i.e. three or four frames per drawing. This translates to only 8 or 6 drawings per second, respectively.

Printed media

Flip books similarly create an illusion of smooth motion when the book is flipped at a fast enough speed.

Sparkler's trail effect

The sparkler's trail effect occurs when one waves a lit sparkler, creating a trail of light. Although it appears that this trail is created by the light left from the sparkler as it is waved through the air, there is, in fact, no light along this trail. The lighted trail is a creation of the mind, which retains a perception of the sparkler's light for a fraction of a second in sensory memory.^[11]

Persistence of vision displays

See also: Thaumatrope, Phenakistoscope, and Zoetrope

A class of display device described as "POV" is one that composes an image by displaying one spatial portion at a time in rapid succession (for example, one column of pixels every few milliseconds). A two-dimensional POV display is often accomplished by means of rapidly moving a single row of LEDs along a linear or circular path. The effect is that the image is perceived as a whole by the viewer as long as the entire path is completed during the visual persistence time of the human eye. A further effect is often to give the illusion of the image floating in mid-air. A three-dimensional POV display is often constructed using a 2D grid of LEDs which is swept or rotated through a volume. POV display devices can be used in combination with long camera exposures to produce light writing.

A common example of this can be seen in the use of bicycle wheel lights that produce patterns.

Latent Image

A latent image is an invisible image produced by the exposure to light of a photosensitive material such as photographic film. When photographic film is developed, the area that was exposed darkens and forms a visible image. In the early days of photography, the nature of the invisible change in the silver halide crystals of the film's emulsion coating was unknown, so the image was said to be "latent" until the film was treated with photographic developer.

Psychoanalytic film theory

Psychoanalytic film theory is a school of academic thought that evokes of the concepts of psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan. The theory is closely tied to Critical theory, Marxist film theory, and Apparatus theory. The theory is separated into two waves. The First wave occurred in the 1960s and 70s.

Precursors

At the end of the nineteenth century, psychoanalysis was created, and film happened to follow shortly afterward.^[2] André Breton, the founder of the Surrealist movement, saw film as a means of engaging the unconscious. Since films had the ability to tell a story using techniques such as superimposition, and slow motion, the Surrealists saw this as mimicking dreams.^[3]

Early applications of psychoanalysis to cinema concentrated on unmasking latent meanings behind screen images, before moving on to a consideration of film as a representation of fantasy.^[4] From there, a wider consideration of the subject position of the viewer led to wider engagements with critical theory - to psychoanalytic film theory proper.^[5]

Freud's concepts of the Oedipus complex, narcissism, castration, the unconscious, the return, and hysteria are all utilized in film theory.^[3] The 'unconscious' of a film are examined; this is known as subtext.^[6]

Gaze

In the early 1970s, Christian Metz and Laura Mulvey separately explored aspects of the "gaze" in the cinema, Metz stressing the viewer's identification with the camera's vision,^[7] - an identification largely "constructed" by the film itself^[8] - and Mulvey the fetishistic aspects of (especially) the male viewer's regard for the onscreen female body.^[9]

The viewing subject may be offered particular identifications (usually with a leading male character) from which to watch. The theory stresses the subject's longing for a completeness which the film may appear to offer through identification with an image, although Lacanian theory also indicates that identification with the image is never anything but an illusion and the subject is always split simply by virtue of coming into existence (aphanisis).^[10]

Second wave

A second wave of psychoanalytic film criticism associated with Jacqueline Rose emphasised the search for the missing object of desire on the part of the spectator: in Elisabeth Cowie's words, "the pleasure of fantasy lies in the setting out, not in the having of the objects".^[11]

From the 1990 onward the Matrixial theory of artist and psychoanalyst Bracha L. Ettinger^[12] revolutionized feminist film theory. Her concept The Matrixial Gaze,^[13] that has established a feminine gaze and has articulated its differences from the phallic gaze and its relation to feminine as well as maternal specificities and potentialities of "coemergence", offering a critique of Sigmund Freud's and Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis, is extensively used in analysis of films^[14].^[15] by female authors, like Chantal Akerman,^[16] as well as by male authors, like Pedro Almodovar^[17]. The matrixial gaze offers the female the position of a subject, not of an object, of the gaze, while deconstructing the structure of the subject itself, and offers border-time, border-space and a possibility for compassion and witnessing. Ettinger's notions articulate the links between aesthetics, ethics and trauma.^[18]

As post-structuralism took an increasingly pragmatic approach to the possibilities Theory offered, so too Joan Copjec criticised early work around the gaze in the light of the work of Michel Foucault.^[19] The role of trauma in cinematic representation came more to the fore,^[20] and Lacanian analysis was seen to offer fertile ways of speaking of film rather than definitive answers or conclusive self-knowledge.^[21]

5 principles of editing

1. Contrast
2. Parallelism
3. Symbolism
4. Simultaneity
5. Leit motif

1. Contrast: cutting between two different scenes which are completely opposites to show the contrast between them. For example, cut from a shot of a man driving a car, to a man taking public transport to really show the difference.


2. Parallelism: here you can connect two pretty unrelated scenes by cutting them together and focusing on a certain object or item in the scenes. For example, a shot of man in New York dialing a number and then a shot of a phone in Egypt ringing. This would make these scene’s be related in the audiences head for later reference.

3. Symbolism: Again, more cutting between scenes, you move from your main scene to something which creates a symbolic connection for the audience. A good example of this would be a scene where somebody was getting bullied, and it cut to shots of a noose. This would show the audience that they are thinking of death/suicide because they are being bullied.

4. Simultaneity: This is used a lot in modern day: cutting between two simultaneous events to build up the suspense. For example – if in your film there is a part where the main character is running late for an exam. You could have shot of him running there and the exam hall where the teacher is waiting for him. This prolonging of time will build up suspense and will keep the audience interested in what is going on.


5. Leit motif: This ‘reiteration of theme’ involves repeating a shot or sequence at key moments for the audience to recognize. For example, in Friday the 13th, there was always a point of view shot from behind some sort of object looking at the victims. When this happened again the audience then recognized it